Adrianople and the Gothic Settlement

The Pannonian Brothers and the Fortified Peace364–375

The election that followed Jovian's brief reign (he died in his sleep on the road home, of charcoal fumes or surfeit, eight months after signing the peace) produced the last effective military dynasty of the undivided empire: Valentinian I, a Pannonian officer of harsh competence, who took the West and gave the East to his brother Valens — the division of 364 at Naissus, the field armies and their commanders partitioned by list, was meant as administrative and proved, in retrospect, the empire's permanent parting. Valentinian's eleven years were the frontier's last great maintenance overhaul, and Ammianus, who admired the work and feared the man, records both: the Alamannic war fought to a decision at Solicinium (368) and settled by fortification and assassination alike; the Rhine-Danube line rebuilt in the reign's signature program — the burgi, watchtowers, and bridgehead-forts whose building inscriptions cluster in the 360s-370s more densely than any period since Hadrian, the emperor himself dying of apoplexy in 375 while berating Quadic envoys who had complained of a fort built on their bank; Britain restored by the elder Theodosius after the "barbarian conspiracy" of 367 — Picts, Scots, and Saxons in concert with mutinied frontier-scouts, the diocese overrun and re-secured in two campaigning seasons; Africa's Firmus revolt broken by the same general, whose reward, in the age's grammar, was execution in a court intrigue at Carthage in 375/6. The Editor marks the reign for the volume's ledger as the demonstration that the fourth-century system, adequately led and funded, still worked: every breach sealed, every field war won, the frontier physically stronger at Valentinian's death than at any hour since the Severans — and its keeper's death leaving the West to a four-year-old (Valentinian II) and a sixteen-year-old (Gratian), and the East to the brother whom Ammianus introduces with the epithet the next section justifies: ignavus was never said, but every page implies a man promoted past his ceiling.

The Crossing and the Catastrophe376–378

The crisis began as a humanitarian appeal. In 376 the Tervingian Goths — Constantine's clients of 332, their world broken by the Hunnic irruption out of the steppe that had destroyed the Greuthungi and killed Ermanaric — appeared on the lower Danube in the tens of thousands begging admission: land for military service, the laeti-bargain this volume has watched work for a century. Valens, at Antioch with his army committed against Persia, granted it — a controlled crossing of the Tervingi under Fritigern, the Greuthungi refused — and the operation's execution converted policy into catastrophe: the crossing barely controlled (Ammianus's image is Vergil's leaves and sands), the disarmament corrupted away, and the provisioning plundered by the very commanders responsible — the count Lupicinus selling the refugees dog-flesh at the price of a child per dog, the detail the historian records as the war's true cause; when Lupicinus then bungled an assassination of the Gothic leadership at a banquet in Marcianople (377), the people he had starved became the army he had armed, and Thrace burned for two years — the refused Greuthungi crossing unopposed, Gothic slaves and miners guiding the columns to the hidden granaries, Roman field forces fighting the drawn nightmare at Ad Salices, the passes lost, Hun and Alan horse hired into the Gothic mass. The reckoning came on 9 August 378 outside ADRIANOPLE. Valens, back from the East with the eastern field army — perhaps twenty to thirty thousand, the modern range — declined to wait for Gratian marching from the West with the victorious army of the Rhine (the sources divide between jealousy of his nephew's laurels and intelligence underestimating Fritigern's numbers at ten thousand; the Editor prints both and notes they are compatible), marched eight miles in August heat, and deployed against the Gothic wagon-laager with negotiations still half-open when two Roman units charged without orders. The battle Ammianus reconstructs is Cannae's shape reassembled by accident: the Roman cavalry of the left committed piecemeal and shattered by the sudden return of the Gothic horse — Alatheus and Saphrax's Greuthungian and Alan cavalry, absent foraging, arriving onto the field's flank "like a thunderbolt" at the precise fatal minute — the infantry mass compressed by its own numbers against the laager until, in the historian's terrible phrase, the field was so packed the dead could not fall; the rout at dusk; two-thirds of the eastern field army destroyed, thirty-five tribunes, the magistri Traianus and Sebastianus, and the emperor — dead in the press by one account, burned alive by another in a farmhouse his guards defended too well, his body never found. Ammianus, closing his history with the disaster, reached for the comparison this compendium has been holding since Book II and used it: no battle in our annals brought such slaughter save Cannae — and the Editor audits the sentence the way the whole series has taught: as arithmetic it is wrong (Cannae's dead were greater); as history it is exact, because the Republic of Book III could replace its dead and the East of 378 could not, and because Cannae's victor had no way to stay, while Adrianople's victors were already inside the walls' world, with their families, their wagons, and nowhere to be sent back to.

Theodosius and the Price of the Peace379–395

The settlement that followed created the fifth century. Theodosius — the executed general's son, called from Spanish retirement by Gratian in 379 — spent four years learning what Adrianople had proved: the Goths could not be destroyed (his rebuilt army's one major attempt broke), could not be expelled, and could no longer be dissolved into the recruitment-stream individually as every previous admitted people had been; and the treaty of 3 October 382 accordingly conceded what no treaty had: settlement in Thrace as an intact people under their own chieftains, land, annual subsidies, and military service as allied contingents under their own commanders — foederati in the new, fatal sense, an armed nation inside the empire, bound to the emperor personally rather than to the state. The Editor grades the deal as its makers could not: it was the least-bad option available in 382, it restored the Balkans within the decade, it supplied the armies that fought the reign's civil wars — and it created the template by which the western empire would, over the next ninety years, transfer province after province to the management of allied kings, and the precedent that a people's price rose with its service. The reign's remaining wars were Roman against Roman, and they consumed exactly the armies the frontier needed: Magnus Maximus, Britain's usurper, who killed Gratian in 383 and took the West to the Alps, destroyed in 388 at the Save; and the war of 394 against Eugenius — the rhetoric-teacher raised by the Frankish generalissimo Arbogast after Valentinian II was found hanged — decided on 5–6 September at the FRIGIDUS in the Julian Alps: the first day a slaughter of the Gothic federate vanguard (ten thousand dead, the sources' figure, and Orosius's cold observation that Theodosius won two wars there); the second day the famous bora — the mountain wind that blew down the pass into the western army's faces, tearing shields from arms, canonized instantly as the Christian God's answer to Jupiter's statues on the ridge; the Editor grades the wind as the rain of Book VII was graded — meteorologically ordinary, evidentially certain, theologically annexed within the year. Theodosius died at Milan four months later, in January 395, the last man to rule the whole empire; the division between his sons Arcadius and Honorius — ten and eighteen, both ciphers — was intended as every division since 364 had been intended, and became, because no hand ever again joined the halves, the end of the undivided Roman state; and at the same hour, in the Balkan federate settlements, the subsidies lapsed, the treaty's personal bond to the dead emperor dissolved, and the Goths of 382 elected as their king the young officer who had led their contingent up the Frigidus pass and counted the ratio of Gothic to Roman dead: Alaric. The volume's last act stands assembled.